Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of death worldwide, taking approximately 17.9 million lives every year. The heart is a powerful muscle, pumping about 2 ounces of blood with each beat and beating over 3 billion times in the average lifetime. Cardiovascular disease is the umbrella term for all disorders affecting the heart or blood vessels, including conditions such as heart attack, stroke, atherosclerosis (clogged arteries), and heart valve defects.  Many types of CVDs...

Emergency departments are often hectic and stressful places filled with patients who are uncertain and scared, and healthcare providers who are overworked and overstimulated. Some patients are in the midst of intense distress stemming from both pain and the psychological aspects of anxiety, fear, anger, or hopelessness that are associated with an emergency. The emotions involved in the interpersonal interactions between patients and healthcare providers in an emergency room play a significant...

Intravenous (IV) therapy is a ubiquitous part of modern medicine, with the familiar IV machine readily available and widely used throughout hospitals. Behind this technology are hundreds of years of research and discoveries by medical professionals and scientists. Our current ability to provide IV therapy to replenish various fluids and nutrients is built upon this knowledge, much of which was standardized only in the 20th century. In fact, there are still many questions surrounding the best...